Chanukah is an 8-day minor festival beginning on the 25th day of Kislev (December). It is the only holiday not mentioned in the Bible. The story of Chanukah is found in the First and Second Books of Maccabees (part of a supplementary book to the Bible known as the Apocrypha). Unlike most other Jewish holidays, its origins are not lost in the veils of history but rather are based on a military victory that occurred in historical times.
The story of Chanukah began with the 4th century conquests of Alexander the Great and the introduction of Hellenic culture into the Middle East. For the first time, Judeans became a part of world history and aware of the greater world around them. Like many of the surrounding nations, Judeans embraced Greek culture. They adopted Greek dress, gave their children Greek names, and educated their children at gymnasia. Only in the realm of religion did the Judeans refuse to become part of the Hellenic world. Unlike the other nations, they didn't build temples to Zeus or adopt the Greek pantheon of gods. It was around this time that the nations of the Bible-the Edomites, the Moabites, the Midianites, etc. - disappeared from history as they became part of the Hellenic world.
After Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his generals. Judea came under Egyptian hegemony. Near the end of the 3rd century BCE, however, the Seleucids of Syria expanded their rule, and Judea came under Syrian rule. The Seleucid strategy was to unite its empire through the universal Hellenic culture. For the nations of this empire, Judea included, loyalty to the Seleucid rulers meant the adoption of Hellenism. This led the Judean aristocracy to promote Hellenism so that Judea would enjoy the commercial benefits of the Seleucid empire.
Their actions, however, enlarged the rift between the upper class Judeans who were anxious to adopt Hellenic lifestyles and the more traditional members of Judean society who wanted to persevere in the old ways. In 176 BCE, Antiochus IV became ruler of Syria. To win the favor of the Seleucids, wealthy Judeans managed to buy the position of high priest for individuals who were sympathetic to Greek culture. These "priests," in turn continued to encourage Judeans to abandon their traditions and to adopt the Hellenic lifestyle.
The Hellenizing movement came to a head when Jason, a moderate Hellenizer, was appointed High Priest. During his third year in the position, Syria went to war with Egypt. Judea was caught in the middle with the aristocracy loyal to Syria, but the lower, religious classes sympathetic to Egypt. Antiochus Epipahanes, the Syrian ruler, wanted a stronger Hellenizer as High Priest to insure greater loyalty to the empire. Consequently, he deposed Jason and replaced him with Menelaus, a more loyal and trustworthy person. Further strife between Syria, Egypt and Rome led Antiochus to heighten efforts to Hellenize Judea. It was at this time that the Temple was turned into a Greek temple and the observance of Jewish religious practices was forbidden.
These actions motivated Mattathias and his sons to resist Antiochus through a guerilla campaign aimed at rebuffing the Syrians and making Judah independent of both Syria and Egypt. After Mattathias' death, his sons Judah Maccabee and his brothers, continued the struggle. In the year 164 BCE, on the 25th day of Kislev, the Temple was rededicated. Chanukah is celebrated each year on this date. After a long struggle, in which Judah Maccabee and four of his brothers died, the last surviving brother, Simon, became High Priest. In 142 BCE he forced the Syrians out of Jerusalem and declared Judah an independent state. The dynasty started by Simon became known as the Hasmonean dynasty. Unfortunately, this independent state, ruled by the Hasmoneans, lasted only until the Roman conquest, less than 200 years later.
Development of the Holiday
The original holiday marked the dedication of the restored Temple on the 25th day of Kislev. According to the First Book of Maccabees, every year afterwards, this anniversary was celebrated as a festive, joyous, 8-day celebration. In the Second Book of Maccabees, aspects of Sukkot were mentioned, such as the recitation of the Hallel prayer during services. The reason for linking this holiday to Sukkot is probably because for three years, during the struggles with Syria, Sukkot (the most important holiday of the time) was not observed.
Josephus (the Jewish historian who lived in Roman times) was the first writer to mention Chanukah lights. In his time, it was not yet decided how to kindle the lights - whether to start with one light and end with eight or to start with eight lights and end with one. The custom of kindling lights on Chanukah was not widespread, and was mentioned only in passing in the Mishnah. Historians suspect that kindling lights had nothing to do with the original Chanukah celebration, but rather was a folk custom observed by some Jewish groups to mark the darkest days of the year. For this reason, the priests were against the practice. The legend about the flask of oil that burned for eight days first appears in the Talmud. This legend was adopted to explain the Chanukah lights, not to explain the holiday of Chanukah. Over the centuries, the legend of the miracle of the oil alternated in popularity with the victory of the Maccabees as the reason for Chanukah.
